A review of the limitations and challenges of sustainable development of epoxy resins from an environmental and energy perspective and their solutions.
Subject Areas :
Ali Kord dezfooli
1
,
Fatemeh Rafiemanzelat
2
*
1 - Polymer Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Isfahan, 81746-73441, Isfahan, Ir
2 - Polymer Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Isfahan, 81746-73441, Isfahan, Iran.
Keywords: Epoxy resin, Energy, Non-toxic compounds, Sustainable development, Recycling,
Abstract :
Epoxy resins are among the most widely used thermosetting polymers in various industries and everyday applications due to their diverse properties. As the annual production and market demand for these resins continue to rise, it becomes increasingly important to address the challenges associated with their use and find effective solutions. Key challenges include the presence of toxic monomers and curing agents, high energy consumption during the curing process, and difficulties in recycling. For example, the toxicity of epoxy anti-corrosion resins can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, the long curing times and elevated temperatures required for these resins lead to significant energy consumption. The thermosetting nature of epoxy resins also complicates recycling efforts, making it difficult to find environmentally friendly and cost-effective methods. To overcome these challenges, the use of bio-based monomers and curing agents is essential. Alternative curing methods, such as photocuring and oxidation-reduction reactions, can also be explored. Utilizing biocompatible activators and innovative energy sources can facilitate faster curing at lower temperatures. Furthermore, employing microorganisms for recycling can help minimize energy waste and reduce environmental impact. The synthesis of renewable resins, along with the development of epoxy resins featuring dynamic bonds, presents an optimal solution. This approach not only increases efficiency but also helps mitigate pollution risks to both the environment and human health, paving the way for a more sustainable future.
H. Q. Pham and M. J. Marks, "Epoxy resins," Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000.
K. Li, N. Huo, X. Liu, J. Cheng, and J. Zhang, "Effects of the furan ring in epoxy resin on the thermomechanical properties of highly cross-linked epoxy networks: A molecular simulation study," RSC advances, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 769-777, 2016.
H. Lee and K. Neville, "Handbook of epoxy resins," 1967.
F.-L. Jin, X. Li, and S.-J. Park, "Synthesis and application of epoxy resins: A review," Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry, vol. 29, pp. 1-11, 2015.
J. Murphy, Additives for plastics handbook. Elsevier, 2001.
T. b. r. company. "Epoxy Resin Global Market Report 2024." https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/epoxy-resin-global-market-report, available in 2024.
Y. Ma et al., "The adverse health effects of bisphenol A and related toxicity mechanisms," Environmental research, vol. 176, p. 108575, 2019.
R. Zielhuis, "Systemic toxicity from exposure to epoxy resins, hardeners, and styrene," Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 25-29, 1961.
E. L. Vermeirssen, C. Dietschweiler, I. Werner, and M. Burkhardt, "Corrosion protection products as a source of bisphenol A and toxicity to the aquatic environment," Water research, vol. 123, pp. 586-593, 2017.
S. Yu, H. J. Kim, S. Jeon, C. S. Lim, and B. Seo, "Synthesis of polyfunctional amines as curing agents and its effect on mechanical property of epoxy polymers," Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 140, no. 18, p. e53806, 2023.
H. Kishi, A. Fujita, H. Miyazaki, S. Matsuda, and A. Murakami, "Synthesis of wood‐based epoxy resins and their mechanical and adhesive properties," Journal of applied polymer science, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 2285-2292, 2006.
J. Łukaszczyk, B. Janicki, and M. Kaczmarek, "Synthesis and properties of isosorbide based epoxy resin," European Polymer Journal, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 1601-1606, 2011.
Z. Tao, S. Yang, Z. Ge, J. Chen, and L. Fan, "Synthesis and properties of novel fluorinated epoxy resins based on 1, 1-bis (4-glycidylesterphenyl)-1-(3′-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2, 2, 2-trifluoroethane," European polymer journal, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 550-560, 2007.
S. Mestry and S. Mhaske, "Synthesis of epoxy resins using phosphorus-based precursors for flame-retardant coating," Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, vol. 16, pp. 807-818, 2019.
C.-S. Wang and J.-Y. Shieh, "Synthesis and properties of epoxy resins containing bis (3-hydroxyphenyl) phenyl phosphate," European polymer journal, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 443-452, 2000.
Z. Tao, S. Yang, J. Chen, and L. Fan, "Synthesis and characterization of imide ring and siloxane-containing cycloaliphatic epoxy resins," European Polymer Journal, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1470-1479, 2007.
M. Kutz, Applied plastics engineering handbook: processing and materials. William Andrew, 2011.
L. Klose et al., "Towards sustainable recycling of epoxy-based polymers: approaches and challenges of epoxy biodegradation," Polymers, vol. 15, no. 12, p. 2653, 2023.
A. M. Atta, H. A. Al-Hodan, R. S. A. Hameed, and A. O. Ezzat, "Preparation of green cardanol-based epoxy and hardener as primer coatings for petroleum and gas steel in marine environment," Progress in Organic Coatings, vol. 111, pp. 283-293, 2017.
A. Anusic, K. Resch‐Fauster, A. R. Mahendran, and G. Wuzella, "Anhydride cured bio‐based epoxy resin: effect of moisture on thermal and mechanical properties," Macromolecular materials and engineering, vol. 304, no. 7, p. 1900031, 2019.
S. Zhang, T. Liu, C. Hao, A. Mikkelsen, B. Zhao, and J. Zhang, "Hempseed oil-based covalent adaptable epoxy-amine network and its potential use for room-temperature curable coatings," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 8, no. 39, pp. 14964-14974, 2020.
X. Zhao, Z. Zhang, J. Pang, and L. Su, "Study on the preparation of epoxy resin materials from nano-lignin polyols," Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 185, p. 115158, 2022.
L. Pezzana et al., "Cationic UV-curing of isosorbide-based epoxy coating reinforced with macadamia nut shell powder," Progress in Organic Coatings, vol. 185, p. 107949, 2023.
M. Bergoglio, D. Reisinger, S. Schlögl, T. Griesser, and M. Sangermano, "Sustainable bio-based UV-cured epoxy vitrimer from castor oil," Polymers, vol. 15, no. 4, p. 1024, 2023.
L. Pezzana, E. Malmström, M. Johansson, V. Casalegno, and M. Sangermano, "Multiple approaches to exploit ferulic acid bio-based epoxy monomer for green thermoset," Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 212, p. 118304, 2024.
C. Elian et al., "Photoactivable alizarin and eugenol-based materials for antibacterial applications," European Polymer Journal, vol. 197, p. 112369, 2023.
A. Formia, J.-M. Tulliani, P. Antonaci, and M. Sangermano, "Epoxy monomers consolidant for lime plaster cured via a redox activated cationic polymerization," Journal of cultural heritage, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 595-601, 2014.
J. Crivello and J. Lee, "Redox‐initiated cationic polymerization: The diaryliodonium salt/benzoin redox couple," Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 1097-1110, 1983.
H. Negi, A. Kapri, M. Zaidi, A. Satlewal, and R. Goel, "Comparative in-vitro biodegradation studies of epoxy and its silicone blend by selected microbial consortia," International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, vol. 63, no. 5, pp. 553-558, 2009.